The history of mass movements in Bangladesh is deeply intertwined with the country’s political, social and economic transformation. Since independence, popular uprisings and civic mobilisations have played a decisive role in shaping governance, public policy and democratic consciousness. However, the post-1990 period represents a particularly significant chapter in this history. The fall of military autocracy in 1990 and the restoration of democratic rule marked the beginning of a new era of political participation and citizen activism. From that point onward, mass movements in Bangladesh gradually evolved from traditional street-based protests into technology-driven, decentralised, and eventually hybrid forms of mobilisation.
An analysis of post-1990 movements reveals four distinct phases in the evolution of collective action in Bangladesh: the era of street-centred mobilisation (1990–2010), the transitional phase (2011–2017), the age of digital mobilisation (2018–2022), and the emergence of highly hybrid movements (2023–2024). These phases reflect not only chronological shifts, but also structural changes in organisation, leadership, communication and public participation.
Between 1990 and 2010, mass movements in Bangladesh were primarily street-oriented and heavily dependent on political parties and student organisations. The experience of the anti-autocracy movement shaped the political culture of this period, where political parties, student groups, labour unions and professional associations served as the principal driving forces behind collective protests. Movements during this era relied on rallies, strikes, blockades and direct physical participation. Newspapers, television and public announcements remained the dominant channels for communication and mobilisation. As a result, the spread of movements was comparatively slower, but their organisational structures were stronger and more centralised. Leadership was clearly defined, and strategic direction remained largely concentrated in the hands of political elites.
Notable examples from this period include the caretaker government movement, the Kansat Power (electricity) protest, labour movements, and student protests surrounding educational and political reforms. These movements were primarily centred on issues of governance, electoral systems, economic inequality and civil rights. Nevertheless, the limitations of traditional media meant that public engagement and nationwide mobilisation often required prolonged organisational efforts.
The period between 2011 and 2017 can be described as a transitional phase in Bangladesh’s protest culture. During this time, the rapid expansion of internet access and smartphone usage enabled social media – particularly Facebook – to emerge as a powerful platform for shaping public opinion and political communication. Although movements during this phase remained largely street-based, online participation introduced a new dimension to collective action. Facebook events, online campaigns, blogs and digital discussions increasingly became tools for spreading information and mobilising support. The Shahbag movement of 2013 stands out as one of the most significant examples of this transformation. Shahbag was not merely a street protest; it represented one of Bangladesh’s first large-scale citizen mobilisations that effectively integrated online and offline activism.
This period also demonstrated the growing ability of social media to politically engage young people and mobilise them rapidly around social and national issues. Consequently, the organisational structure of movements began to shift. Alongside traditional political actors, digitally active citizens and spontaneous participants started playing an increasingly influential role.
The period from 2018 to 2022 marked the rise of ‘digital mobilisation’ in Bangladesh. During these years, social media evolved from a supplementary communication tool into the primary infrastructure for organising movements. Facebook, YouTube, Messenger, and other digital platforms became central to planning, coordination, information dissemination and public engagement. The quota reform movement, the Road Safety Movement, and protests against the Digital Security Act are among the most prominent examples of this phase. These movements demonstrated how information and mobilisation could spread nationwide within hours through social media networks. Live videos, hashtags, viral posts and instant sharing significantly accelerated the pace and reach of collective action.
One of the defining characteristics of this period was the decentralisation of leadership. Many movements adopted the features of ‘leaderless movements,’ where participants coordinated through digital platforms without relying on a single central authority. While this structure enabled rapid expansion and flexibility, it also created challenges regarding long-term organisational sustainability and strategic consistency.
The years 2023 and 2024 signalled the emergence of a new phase of highly hybrid movements in Bangladesh, where online and offline activism became deeply interconnected. Protests were no longer confined to physical spaces; instead, they operated simultaneously across virtual and real-world environments. Movements such as the anti-discrimination student protests and university teachers’ pension protests illustrated how social media could influence not only mobilisation but also broader political discourse and institutional pressure. Within hours, digital platforms were capable of spreading information to millions, coordinating programmes and generating nationwide public engagement.
The defining feature of this phase is ‘hybrid mobilisation’ – the seamless integration of online communication and offline protest activities. Public sentiment created in digital spaces now directly influences street mobilisation, while events occurring on the streets are instantly amplified through social media. Consequently, the scale, speed and political impact of movements have expanded significantly compared to previous decades.
The evolution of mass movements in post-1990 Bangladesh clearly demonstrates that social media – particularly Facebook – has created a new digital public sphere. Within this space, citizens can instantly express opinions, organise protests, exchange information, and participate in political discourse. As a result, the traditional understanding of mass movements has fundamentally changed.
Collective action is no longer monopolised by political parties or formal organisations. Ordinary citizens can now actively shape political narratives and mobilise public opinion through digital platforms. However, this transformation has also introduced new challenges. The rapid spread of misinformation, emotionally driven mobilisation, digital surveillance and online repression have become critical concerns within Bangladesh’s evolving political landscape.
The history of mass movements in Bangladesh is ultimately a history of transformation. From street-centred protests to digitally coordinated and hybrid forms of mobilisation, the country’s protest culture has undergone profound structural changes over the past three decades. Social media has emerged as the most influential catalyst in this transformation, reshaping not only the methods of protest but also the relationship between the state, politics and civil society.
Today, Bangladesh’s mass movements exist within a hybrid reality where streets and digital platforms function as complementary arenas of political action. Understanding this transformation is essential for analysing the future of democratic participation, political mobilisation and social change in Bangladesh.
The views expressed in this article is solely those of the author
The writer is an Associate Professor, Department of Communication and Journalism, University of Chittagong. Email: [email protected]
