The United Arab Emirates (UAE) remains the primary global trading hub for smuggled and conflict gold, importing at least 591 tonnes of illicit gold in 2024 despite enacting legislation in 2023 intended to curb illegal flows, according to a report by the Swiss foundation Swissaid.
The UAE, which stands as the world’s second-largest gold trading hub after Switzerland, serves as the main destination for gold linked to armed conflicts in Africa as well as countries subject to international sanctions, reports Middle East Eye.
Illicit gold is defined as bullion smuggled into the country, predominantly to the markets of Dubai, without supply-chain traceability, or gold originating from war-torn nations including Sudan, Yemen, and Russia.
In 2024, the UAE imported at least 174.5 tonnes of gold directly and indirectly from Russia (via Armenia), Yemen, and Sudan.
Swissaid added that the entire volume imported from these three countries can be considered conflict gold.
Failed regulations and scale of trade
Marc Ummel, head of Swissaid’s commodities unit and co-author of the study, described the findings as “deeply concerning”.
The investigation, based on data spanning 2021 to 2025 and interviews with more than 150 stakeholders, revealed that mandatory due diligence requirements for gold refineries introduced by the UAE in 2023 failed to stem the illegal inflow, with figures instead indicating a slight increase.
Gold smuggled out of Africa and officially imported into the UAE reached 413 tonnes in 2024, compared to 405 tonnes in 2022.
In 2024 and 2025, more than half of all gold imports into the UAE originated from African countries, with approximately 70 per cent of all gold extracted in Africa shipped to the UAE in 2024.
Historical data shows that between 2012 and 2022, over 2,500 tonnes of smuggled African gold, valued at more than $115 billion, was transported to the Emirates.
Over 95 per cent of gold declared as imports in partner countries from Sudan, Niger, the Central African Republic, Zimbabwe, Libya, Togo, and Cameroon was imported into the UAE.
The findings carry significant implications for Switzerland, which is the world’s largest gold trading hub and the principal importer of gold from the UAE.
Fuelling war in Sudan and beyond
The report highlights a direct link between the gold trade and ongoing military conflicts, particularly in Sudan. The UAE has been directly involved in the wars in Yemen and Sudan, acting as the patron of the Rapid Support Forces (RSF), a paramilitary group widely determined to have committed genocide in Darfur.
While Abu Dhabi denies military involvement and asserts its role in Sudan is purely humanitarian, gold, access to agricultural farmland, mercenaries, and Red Sea ports are identified as primary drivers of UAE interest in the region.
The family of RSF chief Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo, widely known as Hemedti, profits directly from gold mines in Darfur under RSF control. The RSF’s dedicated gold trading firm, al-Junaid, accumulated substantial wealth by smuggling gold from Sudanese territory into Dubai.
Gold extraction also continues in areas controlled by the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF), which has been engaged in a war with the RSF since April 2023. While gold from SAF-controlled areas crosses borders into Egypt, Ethiopia, Chad, Libya, and South Sudan, it is almost always officially exported to the UAE.
Artisanal mining and smuggling networks
Sudanese gold trade expert Suliman Baldo explained that 85 to 90 per cent of Sudan’s gold production is dominated by artisanal miners. Wholesale private traders purchase the gold from these miners and smuggle it out of the country to the UAE.
According to a Sudanese trader and refiner operating in River Nile state, individual miners and traders can earn up to $150,000 per month from extracting one to two kilograms of gold, after deducting expenses for workers, fuel, accommodation, and mercury.
He noted that while miners in RSF-controlled areas smuggle gold through South Sudan, Chad, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, or Kenya, those in SAF-controlled areas route bullion primarily through Egypt, with Dubai remaining the ultimate destination through various brokers.
The lucrative trade has drawn gold mining regions directly into active conflict. Near the Egyptian border, the Egyptian military has killed Sudanese miners in air strikes, while near the Ethiopian border, UAE-backed Chinese companies have acquired stakes in gold mines adjacent to Ethiopian army facilities covertly supporting the RSF.
In response to previous Swissaid reports, a UAE official said the government had taken significant steps and implemented new regulations on gold and precious metals. However, Swissaid’s latest findings indicate that these measures have proven ineffective in curtailing illicit trade.
